The direction of the 20th century history and society was irrevocably altered and redefined by revolutions.
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Question One
Introduction
The direction of the 20th century history and society was irrevocably altered and redefined by revolutions. Dominant historiographies have presented commonalities pertinent to all revolutions; the most notable one being the aspect of fundamental ideologies. All 20th century revolutions were characterized by revolutionary ideologies most of which were multifaceted based on minor or major modifications of political philosophies developed either towards the end of the previous century or the turn of the century. Mussolini’s Fascism, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Marxism, different forms of Marxism and Nazism forms some of the most influential ideologies that affected much of the social and political developments of the century.
Ideological Didacticism
The major ideologies (Italian Fascism, communism, Marxism and Nazism) were chiefly used for didactic purposes in their application towards the establishment and propagation of an indeterminate number of the 20th century revolutions. Communism for example was adopted by a number of nations and its ideological predisposition used by revolutionary leaders for instructive purposes. Most of them began by outlining their ethical, moral and economic principles in didactic works which thereafter served to instruct and to teach the masses defining their way of life. A number of these philosophies’ instructiveness were however narrowed and limited to given mindsets. Fascism for example was a particularly influential ideology which was used for didactic purposes. Didactic because its ideologies the aspect of war and violence, were in opposition to what the masses desired.
Prior to its adoption by Mussolini, generic Fascism as an ideology had principles which were in opposition to capitalist ideals, (Gregor, 2006 pp. 2). It served to reject all sociopolitical foundations of capitalism. Capitalist industrial system sought economic development of the self while Mussolini’s Fascism sought to perpetuate economic prosperity to levels in which individuals would not be lacking, a belief in the revolutionary nationalism of the poor, (Gregor, 2004. PP. 2). Since capitalism’s basic foundations were free trade interests and imperialism, fascism was driven by creating abundant resources for all through mysticism based on gross inhumanity, (Gregor, 2006. PP. 4).To convince the masses, individuals and movement’s principles have to appeal to both their intellectual and emotional aspects. A greater proportion of 20th century movements adopted the totalitarian system of administration while promoting economic prosperity, a key principle of the Fascist ideology. These revolutions therefore relied on fascism as a foundational operative using fascist literature for didactic purposes.
Revolutionary groups such as the Russian Fascist organization, the Romanian Fascist National Movement, together with Adolf Hitler’s Nazi party, basing their ideals on the Fascist principles renounced all rationality basing their principles on the non-rational appealing to the concept of violence and war. They used the Fascist’s key principles to coerce the masses into supporting them though these principles could not be supported rationally but were rather mystic relying on intuition rather than reason and immensely glorifying the irrational, rather than rational.
Karl Marx’s Marxism ideologies formed the basis of didactic application of a number of the past century’s revolutionary movements. These were founded based on the theoretical foundation or representation of reality as speculated in the Marxist ideals. Karl Marx’s conception of class struggle, belief in economic equality of man hence attempts to address poor living conditions of the poor in society, sympathy for the working class, and the general need to represent the interest of the masses formed the foundation of Communism, (Marx and Engels, pp. 44). Communism sought to promote a classless society, with common ownership of the means of production rather than this being endowed few in society, (Marx and Engels, pp. 54). These key principles were later on used for didactic purposes by later on communist revolutions.
Ideologies’ perlocutionary factions
It is imperative to note that most ideologies whether fascism, communist, capitalist, Marxism or Nazism had a rather perlocutionary function in their contribution to the foundation of other 20th century revolutions. For example, revolutions founded on the fascist ideologies were irrational and anti-intellectual founded on a cluster of myths, emotions, instincts and hatreds. Fascism as a revolution was the epitome of emotions as it lacked substantial intellectual content. Most scholars have interpreted Mussolini’s Fascism based on the typologies of the political regime it gave rise to, regimes characterized by heightened irrationality and violence; hence tended to view it as an ideology lacking ‘a reasoned rationale’ (Gregor, 2006. pp. 133).
The adoption of the communist ideology was purposefully to convince the poor masses who happened to be the majority in society. It was adopted by a high number of revolutionary groups due to its dual nature of having an intellectual foundation as well as its ability to appeal to human emotions. Likewise Fascism unlike most ideologies based on irrationalism and violence (Such as Nazism), had both irrational principles and a foundation based on complex and sophisticated intellectual constructs. Its ability to not only appeal to emotions, but the intellect is largely attributable the ideology’s serious intellectual and visceral roots. Fascism philosophy was the product of great Italian thinkers some of which included; Sergio Penunxio, Ugo Spirito, Alfredo Rocco and Julious Evola, (Gregor, 2004 pp. 1).
Movements were founded out of the need to convince individuals to follow certain commonalities. These commonalities, whether defined by race, relative economic position or political inclination, used ideologies to perpetuate concepts which were devoid of meaning with terms used lacking any rational or moral justification. It is on this basis that the established ideologies with volumes of literature representation were used to appeal to both individual and collective psychopathologies with their concepts being used to persuade individuals. Their combination formed the basis for ideological convictions or rather a program for rationalization of the programs of the 20th century revolutions.
Comparative Analysis
Comparative studies led to a conclusion that Revolutionary classifications can be constructed based on ideological foundations. Revolutions tended to identify themselves with certain historical revolutionary ideologies. For example Marxism can be said to have given rise to a number of other revolutions with regard to common principles. Communism and all its other branches such as Stalinism, Trotskyism, and Maoism were rather similar in terms of primary ideological statements, though there were differences based on the relative interpretations of these primary principles. Similarly, certain critical 20th century revolutions had their foundations on Mussolini’s fascism. Most scholars assert that one of greatest pathological revolutions, Nazism was the product of Mussolini’s Fascism which arose during the inter World Wars’ interlude. By the onset of WWII, Mussolini’s fascism had simply been merged with Nazism and most interpretations viewed the two as ‘indissolubly one’ (Gregor, 2004. pp. 2).
Most 20th century revolutions were advanced by socially and economically less empowered in attempts to gain favorable political and economic positions. Ideologies’ chief purpose was to arouse sympathy of the masses, providing enlightenment of their predicament with respect to their interest, and providing political base for the aspect of their plight. Most political revolutions used ideologies to coerce the masses by appealing to their emotions rather than their intellect to duly participate in their revolutionary practices; whether ethical or not. The movements were looked at as inspirational avenues to restoration of justice to persons who had experienced real or virtual forms of injustices.
Categorizations of revolutions are either violent, non-violent or a combination of the two approaches. Mussolini’s fascism was a prototype of an assortment of an indeterminate number of revolutions that were largely violent. The German National Socialism, Spanish Falangism, Hungarian Arrow Cross, Roman Legion of the Archangel Michael could be attributed to Fascism and were all violent movements. Most individuals were made to believe that, aggressiveness and conflict oriented aspects of humans was the product of capitalism. Resultantly, these unfavorable aspects could purportedly be done away with via fascism, (Gregor, 2006. PP. 89). Communist revolutions similarly were practically totalitarian implementing the principle of absolute leadership.
Revolutions that came to identify themselves with both Fascist’s and Communists’ revolutionary tenents were rather radical in nature. Extremism and fundamentalism, two characterizations of 20th century revolutionary movements made these movements be in accord to the basic absolutes defining Fascism; the aspect of violence and war. Communism and Marxism also served as a model of an indeterminate number of revolutions as they tended to have similar sociopolitical and philosophical aspirations.
Conclusion
Conclusively, Fascism, Communism, Marxism and Nazism played a rather prelcautionary role in the advent of major 20th century revolutions. They also served to categorize the revolutions thereby giving them a sense of identity. This is not surprising as most of these revolutions were founded by fundamentalists; and pertinently, fundamentalism is founded on myths, instincts, intuition and mostly irrational predispositions. Most ideologies are rather theoretical, exhibiting heightened aspects of internal contradiction and meaninglessness. Most political movements and regimes were on the ‘right’ rather than ‘left’ with their ideologies seeking to denigrate rather than inform, (Gregor, 2006 pp. 131). The complexity and multifaceted nature of these revolutions coupled with existent literary support that could be referred to, made them pivotal models for revolutionary movements of the past century.
Question Two
Introduction
Critical analyses of most of the 20th century revolutionary movements show that, they were characterized by progressive ideological decay some of which led to pathological practices evidenced in gross inhumanity and human rights violation. Certain revolutions from the outset appeared reasonable in terms of their ideological predisposition only to turn out as most irrational, even bestial. Some evolved after being commandeered by leaders who changed policies making them transform from the ideal type systems relapsing into morally and legally unjustified inhuman practices arising primarily from philosophical distortions. Two of the 20th century movements that experienced ideological decay leading to major pathological practices were; The German Hitler’s National Socialism (Nazism) and Italian Mussolini’s (Fascism). Illustratively, a comparative analysis of the progressive alterations in ideological statements of Nazism and Italian Fascism are used as indicatives of major ideological lapses (with some not being as severe as others) leading to largely inhuman practices.
Italian Fascism: A road to prosperity or to misery?
Following WWI, there was heightened uncertainty across Italy and Europe at large as economies were marred by inflation, unemployment, debts, incapacitation, social unrests, and generally failing national economies. The Fascists ideals of totalitarianism appeared as probable solution to the increasing unrest which could not be controlled by the elected liberal government of the then Italian society. Its ideologies were initially favored by the general public as they were perceived to favor development; with the original ones outlining guidelines such as voting rights for then Italian women who had been denied the right to vote, minimum wage which sought to protect those in informal employment, controlled work program, together with other favorable social programs, (Gregor, 2004. PP. 3)
The fascists’ ideologies and principles further promised the restoration of Italian pride, reviving of the economy, increased productivity, limiting government control and dominance and general favorable successes that have characterized other 20th century revolutionary movements. This coupled with actual increased productivity across Italy following the first two years into power Italian majority considered the party ideal. Considerable developmental programs such as better public works program were undertaken leading to favorable economic development. Italy even managed to avoid the great depression which hit most industrial nations across Europe. With such favorable ideologies and political systems, Mussolini and the Fascists culminated a strong public image, (Gregor, 2004. PP. 6)
Comparative Analysis
Comparatively though not as favored as the Italian Fascism from the outset, the Nazi ideology was attractive to the purely Germany society based on its fundamental belief that the Aryan race was superior. Its system of administration, the advocacy for a strong and centralized government under the absolute leadership of the HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%BChrer” o “Führer” Führer coupled with its principles against communism which had been rejected by most individuals across Europe, made the party’s ideologies appear ideal. Its fundamental assertion was that Germany as a country was loosing to communists’ and Jewish conspiracy, hence every true German Nationalist had to struggle through discipline and hard work to reclaim their lost glory. Through submission to the absolute leader, the party’s ideologies promised greater tidings and prosperity to German natives. This appealed to many individuals’ emotions an aspect scholar’s view as leading to its fast rise to fame, (Gregor, pp. 1).
Progressively, both the Nazi and the Fascists’ ideology regressed into ideological decay. The formal publication of the Fascist ideology in 1933 was the onset of major ideological flaws. The ideology rejected any aspect of peace asserting that man was an animal constantly at war with himself and his environment; hence the aspect of peace and harmony was just but a dream. It specified its absolutes as war and violence, revoking democracy as a mere delusion, (Gregor, 1997. PP. 123).
But had the party’s ideology been favorable from the outset? Could the party leaders have presented a shell of their true positions? Most scholars assert that the party leaders were manipulative presenting a face that was not a true representation of its beliefs. Italian Fascism was a 20th century revolution that arose at the end of World War II as was majorly a totalitarian movement throughout its period of rule; between the years 1922 and 1943. Scholars see the movement as a modification of the generic Fascism hence the naming of its ideologies as Mussolini’s fascists ideologies.
Similarly Nazism arose out of the National Socialists philosophy immediately after World War I through its ability to appeal to emotions of Germans who had considerably lost their pride. Following the conclusion of the First World War in which Germans had heavily lost, socialists blamed the loss on German Jews and Germans of other nationalities hence its purported principles were that of patriotism and nationalism, (Gregor, 1997. PP. 123). Its ideology seemed beneficial to Germany as a state, as it advocated for absolute national loyalty. The party in its original form also sought to reject any established world view, most of which it perceived as unjust or untrue representation of the ideal.
Although its ideologies had been largely flawed, Nazism proved to be a pathological movement when following the Reichstag fire, Hitler as the then chancellor of Germany and the leader of the Nazi party, managed to suspend via a decree, all civil liberties by extension, restructuring the political domain by stripping German’s federal states of their powers, (Gregor, 2001. PP. 32). It is during this time period that Nazi concentration camps were created leading to the imprisonment of Hitler’s political opponents, and the abolition of unions and other political parties. Nazism was slowly sliding into a pathological administrative system. Its earlier stand of not following any binding program was slowly receding as most individuals were made to believe that the path to true prosperity was in absolute loyalty to the absolute leader, Adolf Hitler.
Its ideology of nationalism slowly degenerated into unlimited quest for control and dominance evident in the party’s attempt to annex entire Europe. The concept of strong Germanic Nationalism which had governed the parties ideologies during its formative years slowly degenerated into unquenchable thirst for control, an ideology that sought to unite the entire Europe under one leader; the Führer. Major pathological decays were identified in its buildup of militarism. Though not so sever, Fascists also tended to dominate through military control. This military consolidation common to both Nazis and Italian Fascists was based primarily on the belief that a great nation had to have considerable military might; this brought national pride to most Germans and Italians. This however was to later degenerate into chaos that led to the death of tens of millions of people.
Although the Fascists did not adopt the racial philosophy, with Mussolini’s assertion that race was immaterial, but delusions of the senile, Nazis adoption of racial philosophy and discrimination progressed from mild sentiments to pathological practices evidenced by multiple persecutions that brought untold suffering to the masses. It progressively adopted racial policy through the dictatorial principle of seeking to establish a pure race. (Gregor, pp. 154) assert that two notable Fascist philosophers, Giovanni Gentile and Carlo Costomagna were responsible for the conception of the idea that race rather than referring to a specific group defined predominantly by biological predisposition, could be conceived to refer to the collective sense of a nation or a people of on identity, community and common destiny.
German racial policy classified certain individuals such as the Jehovah’s witnesses, homosexuals, disables and the Jews as antisocial who were interfering with the purity of the Aryan race and therefore deserved to die. The epitome of ideological decay and major pathological practices resulting from the Nazi ideology was the Holocaust. This was unjustifiable genocide, in which approximately six million people of Jewish origin alone were exterminated based on Nazi’s ideology of creating a pure Aryan race. Apart from the Jews, persons of non-Aryan origin such as the Romans, soviet civilians, poles, the disabled, gays and other political and religious opponents of the Nazi regime were exterminated, (Gregor, 2006. PP. 89).
Both Italian Fascism and the Nazi revolutions started with ideological principles that seemed beneficial to their respective countries though this progressively degenerated into attempts to create a fundamentally ethnic state in Germany and to gain absolute national domination and control in the case of both Germany and Italy. Its ideological principles degenerated from being that which sought to promote nationalism by uniting their respective members thereby strengthening the German and the Italian societies. The Fascists case, although later responsible for the death of millions in war, did not witness the heightened inhuman practices adopted by the Nazis which turned its power persecutory machine.
Conclusion
All the two revolutions discussed above were characterized by; seemingly favorable ideologies that later degenerated into pathological practices. Nazis progressively intensified acts of violence against those described ‘antisocial’ leading to the creation of concentration camps in which many individuals were tortured, and killed. Through Ghettos, death squads, extermination camps, gas chamber, were the evil that marked the rise of the Nazi ideology. (Gregor, 2006 pp. 40-42) asserts that, both Mussolini and Hitler’s revolutionary ideologies were false, furthermore both stressed the aspect of revolutionary violence and submission to charismatic leadership (Gregor, 2006 pp. 80-82).
Works Cited
Gregor A. James. “Faces of Janus: Marxism and Fascism in the Twentieth Century”
New Haven, Conn.: Century Yale University Press, 2006
Gregor, A. James. “The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science”
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Gregor, A. James. “Mussolini’s Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought.”
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004.
Gregor, A. James. “Interpretations of Fascism” New York: Transaction Publishers, 1997.
Gregor, A. James. “Giovanni Gentile: Philosopher of Fascism” New York: Transaction
Publishers, 2001.
Karl, Marx and Friedrich Engels. “The Communist Manifesto” Signet Classics, 1998.
