The Nature of Human Communication.
Communication theorist Frank Dance defines symbols as abstract, arbi-
trary representations of reality agreed upon by human users.5 For example, there is nothing in the physical nature of this book that mandates labeling it a “book.” We have agreed to use this label, or symbol, to represent a bound col- lection of pages; this agreement is purely arbitrary. The meaning of a symbol, according to Leslie White, does not come from the intrinsic properties of the idea, concept, or object being represented. The value is “bestowed upon it by those who use it.”6 Words are not the only symbols we use; we attach arbitrary meanings to many nonverbal behaviors as well. Looking someone in the eye symbolizes honesty to many North Americans. However, making direct eye contact in some other cultures is considered an invasion of privacy. Meaning is generated through communication.
[Humans] differ from the apes, and indeed all other living creatures so far as we know, in that [they are] capable of symbolic behavior. With words, [humans] create a new world, a world of ideas and philosophies.
—Leslie White
Communication is based on the transfer of symbols, which allows individ- uals to create meaning. As you read this text, the words we have written are transferred to you. The meanings of these words are subject to your interpre- tation. It is our goal to write in a way that allows for clear understanding, but factors such as your cultural background, your previous experience, your level of interest, and our writing skills influence your perception of our message.
stranded climbers. Pasang Lama gave his ice axe to another climber while above the Bottleneck. When his colleague Chhiring Dorje saw his plight, he climbed back up to help. Chhiring roped himself to Pasang and they descended step by step to safety. Two other Sherpa lost their lives in an avalanche after they ascended to assist three Korean climbers tangled in rope.
The disaster on the Savage Mountain illustrates the high cost of ineffective and unethical leadership and followership. However, these events also demonstrate how individuals can make a life-and-death difference when they put aside selfish concerns to help others.
Discussion Questions
1. Have you ever followed a leader in a high-risk situation? How did you determine that this per- son was worthy of your trust?
2. Have you ever been the leader in a high-risk activity? How did you approach this task?
3. Have you ever let pursuit of a goal override your common sense and put you in danger? How can you prevent this from happening again?
4. What steps, if any, could have been taken to prevent the disaster on K2 or to lessen the death toll?
5. Why do some people, like the Sherpa on K2, rise to the challenge of a crisis while others do not?
6. What leadership and followership lessons do you take from the disaster on K2?
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6 Chapter One
The goal of communication is to create a shared reality between message sources and receivers.
The human ability to manipulate symbols allows for the creation of reality. Simply labeling someone as “motivated” or “lazy,” for example, can lead to changes in behavior. Followers generally work hard to meet the high expecta- tions implied in the “motivated” label; they may lower their performance to meet the low expectations of the “lazy” label. This phenomenon, discussed in detail in chapter 8, is known as the Pygmalion effect.
Symbols not only create reality but also enable us to communicate about the past, present, and future. We can evaluate our past performances, analyze current conditions, and set agendas for the future. In addition, symbolic com- munication is purposive and goal driven. We consciously use words, gestures, and other symbolic behaviors in order to achieve our goals. The purposeful nature of human communication differentiates it from animal communication.7
The communication patterns of animals are predetermined. For example, wolves normally travel in small groups known as packs. Dominance within the pack is predetermined based on such characteristics as size, physical strength, and aggressiveness. Humans, on the other hand, consciously select from an array of possibilities for achieving their goals. Human leadership is not prede- termined as in the animal world; rather, it varies from situation to situation and from individual to individual.
Leadership shares all of the features of human communication just described. First, leaders use symbols to create reality. Leaders use language, stories, and rituals to create distinctive group cultures. Second, leaders communicate about the past, present, and future. They engage in evaluation, analysis, and goal setting. Effective leaders create a desirable vision outlining what the group should be like in the future. Third, leaders make conscious use of symbols to reach their goals. See the case study in box 1.3 for examples of the effective and inef- fective use of symbols by leaders. We will have more to say about how leaders adapt their behaviors to reach their goals later in the chapter. In the meantime, let’s take a closer look at the characteristics of human communication.
Words can destroy. What we call each other ultimately becomes what we think of each other, and it matters.
—Jeane Kirkpatrick
The Human Communication Process Noted communication scholar Dean Barnlund identified five principles
that reflect the basic components of human communication.8 Communication is not a thing, it is a process. Communication is not con-
stant; it is dynamic and ever changing. Unlike a biologist looking at a cell through a microscope, communication scholars focus on a continuous, ongoing process without a clearly defined beginning or end. Take a typical conversation, for example. Does a conversation begin when two people enter a room? When they first see each other? When they begin talking? Barnlund, and others,
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Leadership and Communication 7
Box 1.3 Case Study The Importance of Symbols
Leadership is primarily a symbolic activity. The words and behaviors of leaders greatly influ- ence the reactions of those who follow. Consider these examples:
Don Isley is the General Manager of Renco Manufacturing, a medium-sized manufacturing company producing precision components for the airline industry. The Renco plant is located in an office park near a commercial airport and parking is limited. Employee parking areas at the plant are divided into two lots. In one lot, managers and office staff park their vehicles near the main entrance to the Renco plant. On the other side of the building, those who work in the pro- duction area park near a side entrance to the plant. This parking arrangement is more informal than formal, but employees are consistent in their behavior and rarely park in the “wrong” lot. Isley parks in neither lot. He parks his vehicle, a new Corvette, directly in front of the building in a fire lane designated as a no parking area. Isley claims he needs to park in this location so that he can have easier access to his office. Some of the production workers who earn salaries just above minimum wage feel like Isley is “showing off.” What do you think?
Peter Houghton is the CEO of a large privately owned utility company—Valley Electric. Houghton came to Valley Electric from a competitor where he was highly regarded for his suc- cessful management practices. Despite this reputation, employees at Valley Electric were ner- vous when Houghton was hired. He replaced a well-regarded CEO who had been at the helm during a period of rapid growth and profitability. Sensing this uneasiness, Houghton made the decision to spend his first month on the job meeting as many Valley Electric employees as he could. Houghton visited offices, power stations, and field sites. He introduced himself to employ- ees, asked questions, and learned policies and procedures. At the end of his first month on the job, Houghton finally reported to his office. He felt ready to assume the challenge of leading Val- ley Electric. What do you think of this strategy?
Mark Ayala is the owner of a small T-shirt printing business. His company employs about 15 full-time staff members who are responsible for the production of a variety of custom-designed T- shirts. Most of the staff work for minimum wage, and turnover is high. The clothing produced ranges from special-order logo shirts for corporate clients to mass-produced shirts celebrating sports team championships. Ayala started the business in his garage five years ago and has built a loyal clientele by providing high-quality products that are delivered on time to his customers. Ayala and his staff must, at times, work around the clock to meet deadlines for special orders. Through his persistence and hard work, Ayala has developed a very successful business. Recently, Ayala noted that his total revenue for the year exceeded $1 million for the first time in company history. To mark this accomplishment and to thank his employees, Ayala came in late one night and printed T-shirts for his staff. The shirts featured a depiction of a $1 million dollar bill with Ayala’s picture in the center. On the back each shirt read, “Thanks a Million.” When Ayala announced the $1 million milestone to his employees and handed out the shirts, many of his employees were appreciative. Some, however, found the T-shirt giveaway insulting. What do you think?
Eric Littleton is the president of Bald College, a small, private, residential school in the South that is heavily dependent upon tuition revenue. Due to a drop in the number of incoming stu- dents, Bald had to reduce costs. Littleton called an all-employee meeting to announce that department budgets would be cut and that some employees would be laid off. He delivered this message to faculty and staff while wearing workout clothes—a T-shirt, Bald College sweatshirt, and running pants. At the end of the meeting he declined to take questions. Instead he told the crowd that he was headed over to the athletic complex to run with the college’s highly successful men’s basketball team. A number of employees were upset with the way the president handled this important announcement. What do you think?
Margaret Gates is the superintendent of schools in the Elmwood Hills school district. Elm- wood Hills is an affluent community located in the suburbs of a large metropolitan area. The schools in the Elmwood Hills district have an excellent reputation, and many parents choose to
(continued)
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