The brain of an adolescent is not done developing.
Unit 3: Articles, Websites, and Videos:
The brain of an adolescent is not done developing. In fact, some research says our brains continue to develop until we are 25 years of age. This video helps us understand more about how adolescents respond to and get used to risks presented to them in their environment and how these processes change their ever-developing brains.
Adolescent suicide is real and present in almost all of our communities. Sadie Penn is a suicide survivor and now an advocate of suicide prevention. In this video, she provides us in her personal story and pointed views on the prevalence of suicide with a focus on how all of us must get involved and assist those around us.
Children need strong and consistent attachments in order to thrive and reach their full potential. Yet, they are exposed to many different types, both positive and negative, throughout their lives. In this video, various types of attachments in children are explored with the connection being made as to how each will impact their ability to establish relationships later in life.
Biological Development in Adolescence: Chapter: 6
Chapter Introduction
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Learning Objectives
This chapter will help prepare students to
· LO 1 Define adolescence
· LO 2 Describe major physical changes during adolescence (including puberty, the growth spurt, the secular trend, and primary and secondary sex characteristics)
· LO 3 Explain psychological reactions to physical changes
· LO 4 Describe sexual activity in adolescence
· LO 5 Assess sex education and empowerment
· LO 6 Identify sexually transmitted diseases
· LO 7 Explain major methods of contraception
Roger sat in study hall gazing out the window. He had an intense, pained expression on his face. Roger was 15 years old, and not one thing was going right for him. His arms were too long for the rest of his body. He felt like he couldn’t walk from the desk to the door without tripping at least once. Homecoming was coming up soon, and his face suddenly looked like a pepperoni pizza. Amanda, the light of his life, wouldn’t even acknowledge his existence. To top it all off, even if he managed to get Amanda to go to homecoming with him, he’d still either have to scrounge up another older couple to drive or else have his father drive them to the dance. How humiliating. Roger continued to gaze out the study hall window. The primary theme in his thoughts was, Life is hard.
Change and adjustment characterize adolescence. Roger is not unique. Like other people his age, he is trying to cope with drastic physical changes, increasing sexual awareness, desires to fit in with the peer group, and the desperate need to develop a personal identity.
We have established that the attainment of developmental milestones is directly related to human behavior. We have also established that within any individual, the biological, psychological, and social aspects of development mutually affect each other. Together, they interact and significantly impact growth, change, and ultimately, well-being.
Biological development and maturation affect both how adolescents perceive themselves and how they behave. Rapid and uneven physical growth may cause awkwardness, which may result in feeling self-conscious and consequently uncomfortable in social interactions. For example, some psychological and behavioral differences exist between males who develop earlier or later and those who develop at an average rate.
Biological development often affects the transactions between individuals and their immediate social environments. For instance, when adolescents begin to attain physical and sexual maturity, sexual relationships may begin to develop. Likewise, new and different alternatives become available to adolescents and young adults as they mature. For example, alternatives concerning sexuality may range from no sexual activity to avid and frequent sexual relations. These new alternatives merit evaluation in terms of their positive and negative consequences. Decisions need to be made about such critical issues as whether to have sexual relations and which, if any, methods of contraception to use.
A Perspective
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 address, respectively, the biological, psychological, and social-environmental aspects of adolescence. The goal is to provide a framework for a better understanding of this difficult yet exciting time of life.
6-1Define Adolescence
LO 1
Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood during which young people mature physically and sexually. The word is derived from the Latin verb adolescere, which means “to grow into maturity.”
There is no precise time when adolescence begins or ends, although it usually extends from about age 11 or 12 to the late teens or early 20s. Adolescence should be differentiated from puberty, which is more specific. Adolescence might be considered a cultural concept that refers to a general time during life. Puberty, on the other hand, is a physical concept that refers to the specific time during which people mature sexually and become capable of reproduction. The word puberty is derived from a Latin word meaning “to grow hairy” (Nairne, 2014, p. 97).
Some societies have specific rites of passage or events to mark the transition from childhood into adulthood. For example, among the Mangaia of the South Pacific (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017 Marshall, 1980), when a boy reached the age of 12 or 13 years, he participated in a ceremony where a superincision was made on his penis. The cut was made along the entire length of the top of the penis. After the completion of this extremely painful ceremony, the boy ran out into the ocean or a stream to ease the pain. He then typically exclaimed, “Now I am really a man.”
Our society has no such distinct entry point into adulthood. Although we might breathe a sigh of relief at not having such a painful custom, we’re still left with the problem of the vague transitional period we call adolescence. There are no clear-cut guidelines for how adolescents are supposed to behave. On the one hand, they are children, but on the other hand, they are adults.
Some occurrences tend to contribute to becoming an adult. These include getting a driver’s license, graduating from high school, graduating from college, and perhaps getting married. However, not all individuals do these things. Some young people drop out of high school, and many high school graduates don’t go on to college. Substantial numbers of young people choose not to marry or to marry much later in life. Even people who do go through these rites do so with varying levels of maturity and ability to handle responsibility. At any rate, becoming an adult still remains a confusing concept.
The gradual, but major, physical changes do not help to clarify the issue. Adolescents must strive to cope with drastic changes in size and form, in addition to waves of new hormones sweeping through their bodies. Resulting emotions are often unexpected and difficult to control. This time can be very difficult for an adolescent struggling with their gender identity. Within this perspective of change and adjustment, we will look more closely at specific physical changes and at the effects of these changes on the developing personality.
6-2Describe Major Physical Changes during Adolescence
LO 2
A range of physical changes occur during adolescence. These include puberty, a growth spurt, results of the secular trend, and the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
6-2aPuberty
Puberty is marked by the sudden enlargement of the reproductive organs and sexual genitalia, and the development of secondary sex characteristics (features that distinguish the genders but are not directly involved in reproduction). Most girls begin puberty around 8 to 12 years of age, while boys are 2 years later (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Girls tend to attain their full height by about age 16, whereas boys may continue to grow until age 18 to 20 (Sigelman & Rider, 2012).
The two-year age difference in beginning puberty causes more than its share of problems for adolescents. Girls tend to become interested in boys before boys begin noticing girls. One dating option for girls involves older boys of the middle or late teens. This can serve to substantially raise parental anxiety. An option for boys is to date girls who tower over them.
There is a wide age span for both boys and girls when puberty begins. Although in general, there is a two-year difference, substantial individual differences also must be taken into account. In other words, one boy may begin puberty four years earlier than another.
What causes the abrupt and extraordinary changes brought on by puberty? Acting as a catalyst for all of these changes is an increase in the production of hormones. Hormones are chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands. Among other things, they stimulate growth of sexual organs and characteristics. Each hormone targets specific areas and stimulates growth. For example, testosterone directly affects growth of the penis, facial hair, areas in the brain, and even cartilage in the shoulder joints. In women, the uterus and vagina respond to the female hormones of estrogen and progesterone. For transgender adolescents, puberty may be the time they start to consider reassignment surgery. This is a difficult decision for both transgender adolescents and their families. They must weigh the pros and cons of any operation (which in the case of fully transitioning may involve multiple operations) and attempt to determine the best time for surgery (before or after puberty). Social workers need to work closely with the adolescents, their parents, and medical professionals to determine the best course of action.
6-2bThe Growth Spurt
The initial entrance into puberty is typically characterized by a sharp increase in height. During this spurt, boys and girls may grow between 2 and 5 inches. Before the growth spurt, boys tend to be 2 percent taller than girls. However, because girls start the spurt earlier, they tend to be taller, to weigh more, and to be stronger than boys during ages 11 to 13. By the time both sexes have completed the spurt, boys once again are usually larger than girls.
The adolescent growth spurt affects virtually the entire body, including most aspects of the skeletal and muscular structure. However, boys and girls grow differently during this period. Boys’ shoulders get relatively wider, and their legs and forearms relatively longer, than those of girls. Girls, on the other hand, grow wider in the pelvic area and hips. This is to enhance childbearing capability. Girls also tend to develop a layer of fat over the abdomen, hips, and buttocks during puberty. This eventually will give a young woman a more shapely, rounded physique. However, the initial chubby appearance can cause the adolescent a substantial amount of emotional stress. Crash and starvation diets can create a physical health hazard during this period.
Adolescents tend to have unequal and disproportionate growth. Most adolescents have some features that look disproportionate. The head, hands, and feet reach adult size and form first, followed by the legs and arms. Finally, the body’s trunk reaches its full size. A typical result of this unequal growth is motor awkwardness and clumsiness. Until the growth of bones and muscles stabilizes, and the brain adjusts to an essentially new body, awkward bursts of motion and misjudgments of muscular control will result.
6-2cThe Secular Trend
People generally grow taller and bigger than they did a century ago. They also reach sexual maturity and their adult height faster than in the past. This tendency toward increasing size and earlier achievement of sexual maturity is referred to as the secular trend.
The trend apparently has occurred on a worldwide basis, especially in industrialized nations such as those of Western Europe and Japan. This suggests that an increased standard of living, along with better health care and nutrition, is related to the trend.
This secular trend seems to have reached its peak and stopped. A 14-year-old boy of today is approximately 5 inches taller than a boy of the same age in 1880.
6-2dPrimary and Secondary Sex Characteristics
A major manifestation of puberty is the development of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Primary sex characteristics are those directly related to the sex organs and reproduction. The key is that they have a direct role in reproduction. For females, these include development of the uterus, vagina, and ovaries. The ovaries are the major sex glands in a female, which both manufacture sex hormones and produce eggs that are ready for fertilization.
For males, primary sex characteristics include growth of the penis and development of the prostate gland and the testes. The prostate gland, which is located below the bladder, is responsible for a significant portion of the ejaculate or whitish alkaline substance that makes up semen, which carries the sperm. The testes are the male sex glands that both manufacture sex hormones and produce sperm.
We have already defined secondary sex characteristics to include those traits that distinguish the genders from each other but play no direct role in reproduction. These include menstruation, hair growth, development of breasts, growth of reproductive organs, voice changes, skin changes, and nocturnal emissions.
Proof of Puberty
One of the most notable indications that a female has achieved the climax of puberty is her first menstruation, also called menarche. Menstruation is the monthly discharge of blood and tissue debris from the uterus when fertilization has not taken place.
Girls today are experiencing first menstruation at earlier ages than girls growing up three or four decades ago. The average age for first menstruation, menarche (pronounced “men-ar-key”) in the United States is now years. That means that many girls have their first period before the end of seventh grade, and many begin as early as fourth or fifth grade. It also means that many girls will at least be in the eighth grade before their first period, and some may be seniors in high school before they get a period. All of these situations are normal. (Greenberg, Bruess, & Oswalt, 2014, p. 417)
Note that frequently young females begin to menstruate before they begin to ovulate, so they might not be capable of becoming pregnant for two or more years after menarche (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017) During puberty, females also experience an increased blood supply to the clitoris (a small structure at the entrance to the vagina that’s highly sensitive to stimulation and gives sexual pleasure), a thickening of the vaginal walls, and significant growth of the uterus, which doubles in size from the beginning of puberty to age 18 (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017)
A wide variation in the age for first menstruation is found from one female to another. A Peruvian girl of age 5 is the youngest mother ever recorded to have a healthy baby. This occurred in 1939. The baby was born by cesarean section. At the time, physicians found that the mother was mature sexually, and that she apparently had begun menstruation at the age of 1 month. The youngest parents known are an 8-year-old mother and 9-year-old father. This Chinese couple had a son in 1910 (Hyde, 1982). Spotlight 6.1 reviews some recent research on the differences in the age of menarche for various ethnic groups in the United States.
Spotlight on Diversity 6.1
Diversity and Menarche
Some research has found differences in the age of menarche among white Americans, African Americans, and Hispanic Americans (Chumlea et al., 2003). The sample included 2,500 girls aged 8 to 20. African Americans began menstruating significantly earlier than the other two groups in the study. Hispanic girls also began menstruating earlier than white girls, but not as early as African American girls. Between ages and 14, a total of 90 percent of girls in all three groups had begun menarche.
It is somewhat more difficult to establish that a boy has entered the full throes of puberty. In males, hormones cause the testes to increase in size and to begin producing sperm by age 14 on average (Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2014). Increased testosterone production also initiates a growth in penis size, first in thickness and then in length.
Hair Growth
Hair begins to grow in the pubic area during puberty. After a period of months and sometimes years, this hair changes in texture. It becomes curlier, coarser, and darker. About two years after the appearance of pubic hair, axillary hair begins to grow in the armpits. However, the growth of axillary hair varies so much from one person to another that in some people axillary hair appears before pubic hair. Boys’ facial hair also begins to grow on the upper lip and gradually spreads to the chin and cheeks. Chest hair appears relatively late in adolescence.
Development of Breasts
Breast development is usually one of the first signs of sexual maturity in girls. The nipples and areola, the darkened areas surrounding the nipples, enlarge. Breasts initially tend to be cone-shaped and eventually assume a more rounded appearance.
Some women in our culture tend to be preoccupied with breast size and feel that breasts come in one of two sizes—too small or too large. However, all breasts are functionally equipped with 15 to 20 clusters of mammary or milk-producing glands. Each gland has an individual opening to the nipple or tip of the breast into which the milk ducts open. The glands themselves are surrounded by various amounts of fatty and fibrous tissue. The nipples are also richly supplied with sensitive nerve endings, which are important in erotic stimulation. There is no indication that breast size is related to a woman’s ability to experience pleasurable sensation (Masters, Johnson, & Kolodny, 1995).
Some adolescent boys also undergo temporary breast development. Although this may cause them some anxiety concerning their masculinity, this enlargement is not abnormal. Hyde and DeLamater (2017) indicate that this occurs in approximately 80 percent of boys in puberty. The probable cause is small amounts of female sex hormones produced by the testes. The condition usually disappears within about a year.
Voice Changes
Boys undergo a noticeable lowering in the tone of their voices, usually fairly late in puberty. The process involves a significant enlargement of the larynx or Adam’s apple and a doubling in the length of the vocal cords. Many times it takes two years or more for boys to gain control over their new voices.
Girls also experience a slight voice change during adolescence, although it’s not nearly as extreme as the change undergone in boys. Girls’ voices achieve a less high-pitched, more mature tone due to a slight growth of the larynx.
Skin Changes
Adolescence brings about increased activity of the sebaceous glands, which manufacture oils for the skin. Skin pores also become coarser and increase in size during adolescence. The result is frequently a rapid production of blackheads and pimples, commonly referred to as acne, on the face and sometimes on the back. Unfortunately, a poor complexion is considered unappealing in many cultures (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). Acne adds to the stress of adolescence. It tends to make young people feel even more self-conscious about their bodies and physical appearance.
Nocturnal Emissions
Approximately 90 percent of men and 40 percent of women experience nocturnal emission sometime in their lives (Yarber & Sayad, 2016). A nocturnal emission, also referred to as a wet dream, is the ejaculation or emission of semen while a male is asleep. The highest frequency of approximately once a month tends to occur during the late teens. The number then tapers off during the 20s, and finally stops after age 30.
Nocturnal emissions are a natural means of relieving sexual tension. Often, but not always, they are accompanied by sexual dreams. It’s important that adolescents understand that this is a normal occurrence and that there’s nothing physically or mentally wrong with them.
Females also have orgasms during sleep (Yarber & Sayad, 2013). However, these apparently don’t occur as frequently or as early as males’ nocturnal emissions.
6-3Explain Psychological Reactions to Physical Changes
LO 3
One thing that marks adolescence is self-criticism. Physical imperfections are sought out, emphasized, and dwelled on. It may be a large lump on a nose. Or it may be an awesome derriere. Or it may even be a dreadful terror of braces locking unromantically during a goodnight kiss. Adolescents seek to conform to their peers. Any aspect that remains imperfect or too noticeable becomes the object of criticism. Perhaps it’s because the age is filled with change and mandatory adjustment to that change that adolescents strive to conform. Perhaps before an individual personality can develop, a person needs some predictability and security.
A substantial amount of research focuses on adolescents’ perceptions of themselves. Special areas of intense interest include body image, self-concept, weight level, weight worries, and eating disorders.
6-3aBody Image and Self-Concept
Perception of one’s body image and attractiveness is related to adolescents’ level of self-esteem, especially for girls (Bearman, Presnall, Martinez, & Vaughn, 2006; Moore & Rosenthal, 2006; Newman & Newman, 2015) People who consider themselves attractive tend to be more self-confident and satisfied with themselves.
Girls generally tend to be more critical of and dissatisfied with their physical appearance than are boys (Newman & Newman, 2015). This is especially true concerning weight. One national survey of adolescents explored their thoughts about weight control; 85 percent of respondents thought that girls emphasized weight control, but only 30 percent thought that boys did (Newman & Newman, 2009). This is probably due to the extreme importance placed on females’ appearance in this culture. For example, a girl might think, “My thighs are too fat, and my butt sticks out too much. I’d really like to fit into size 7 jeans, but can’t get under a size 9. Can girls my age have cellulite?” Chapter 8 discusses eating disorders, which are problems directly related to weight control and self-perception.
Although before puberty levels of depression among girls and boys are similar, during adolescence girls are more likely to experience depression; this is true for white, African American, and Hispanic adolescents (Leadbeater, Kuperminc, Blatt, & Hertzog, 1999; Newman & Newman, 2015). This may be due to at least four factors (Newman & Newman, 2015). First, the estrogen cycle is linked to emotional variations and low self-esteem. Second, girls tend to criticize their appearance and weight when they reach puberty. This may set the stage for long-term displeasure with themselves, eventually resulting in depression. Third, girls tend to blame themselves for their problems and issues. They are more introspectively self-critical. Boys, on the other hand, tend to blame others and things outside of themselves as causes for their problems. Fourth, girls tend to be more perceptive of and upset by experiences their friends, family, and others are having. Such sensitivity and deep concern may lead to depression.
Ethical Questions 6.1
1. Is it right or fair to place so much importance on external physical appearance, especially when this emphasis concerns weight? Is it equitable that the burden of weight control rests more heavily on women than on men? How have these concerns about weight and physical appearance affected you and aspects of your own biological, psychological, and social development?
6-3bEarly and Late Maturation in Boys
Rathus (2014b) summarizes the research on early- and late-maturing boys:
Research findings about boys who mature early are mixed, but most of the evidence suggests that the effects of early maturation are generally positive (Teunissen et al., 2011). Late-maturing boys may feel conspicuous because they are among the last of their peers to lose their childhood appearance…
Early-maturing boys tend to be more popular than their late-maturing peers and more likely to be leaders in school (Graber et al., 2004; Windle et al., 2008). Early-maturing boys in general are also more poised, relaxed, and good-natured. Their edge in sports and the admiration of their peers heighten their sense of self-worth…
On the negative side, early maturation is associated with greater risks of aggression and delinquency (Lynn et al., 2007) as well as abuse of alcohol and other drugs (Costello et al., 2007; Engels, 2009). (p. 467)
What are the reasons for such negative effects of early maturation in boys? Possibly, early-maturing males may not yet have gained the emotional and intellectual maturity that ongoing development and simple life experience can provide them. Because such boys look older and more mature, other people might attribute to them greater decision-making skills, perceptiveness, and leadership ability than they actually possess (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Newman & Newman, 2015). They might be thrown into situations they can’t handle because they’re not yet ready. Because they look older, they might get involved with older peers and be exposed to situations they’re emotionally and intellectually unable to handle. They might be unprepared to make responsible decisions regarding involvement in antisocial behavior.
In comparison to early-maturing boys, prior studies viewed boys who matured late as feeling inferior because of their smaller size and younger appearance. This, in turn, led to lower levels of self-esteem and more adjustment problems (Sigelman & Rider, 2012). It is still thought that late-maturing boys perceive themselves more negatively and feel less popular than their early-maturing counterparts (Santrock, 2016). Late-maturing boys may be denied the respect and attention given to more mature-looking boys.
However, one earlier study found that when boys who matured late reached their 30s, they established a stronger and more robust sense of identity than did those in other maturation groups (Peskin, 1967). Perhaps, dealing with earlier stress made late maturers more resilient and, as a result, stronger. Possibly having more time to mature gave them more opportunities to focus on exploring educational and career options. Or maybe they tended to focus on achievement and personality development instead of relying on their advanced physical prowess. What comes to mind is a character in a movie who was an unpopular, “geeky nerd” in high school. However, at his 20-year high school reunion, he was admired by all because he had invented and patented a number of high-tech innovations, thus becoming a multimillionaire.
By adulthood, the differences between early and late maturers become much less clear (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2014; Santrock, 2012b). So many other elements are involved in a person’s development, including those that are cognitive and social, that it is difficult to predict the effects of any one variable, such as maturation rate. This illustrates an area where practitioners should continue to review and evaluate the research in a pattern of career-long learning in order to understand the dynamics involved in and effecting adolescence.
6-3cEarly and Late Maturation in Girls
A number of studies report that early-maturing girls are disadvantaged in various areas. Santrock, 2016) explains:
In recent years, an increasing number of researchers have found that early maturation increases girls’ vulnerability to a number of problems… Early-maturing girls are more likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an eating disorder, engage in delinquency, struggle for earlier independence from their parents, and have older friends; and their bodies are likely to elicit responses from males that lead to earlier dating and earlier sexual experiences… And early-maturing girls are less likely to graduate from high school and more likely to cohabit and marry earlier. (p. 424)
Maybe, as with early-maturing boys, their lack of life experience, level of cognitive development, and naivete put them at risk of problems. They may have to make “adult” choices before they are ready to accept the consequences of behavior or even acknowledge such consequences.
Sigelman and Rider (2012) explain the situation for late-maturing girls:
Late-maturing girls (like late-maturing boys) may experience some anxiety as they wait to mature, but they do not seem to be as disadvantaged as late-maturing boys. Indeed, whereas later-developing boys tend to perform poorly on school achievement tests, later-developing girls outperform other students (Dubas, Graber, & Petersen, 1991). Perhaps late-developing girls focus on academic skills when other girls have shifted some of their focus to extracurricular activities. (p. 159)
The differences between early- and late-maturing girls in adulthood are complex and tentative (Sigelman & Rider, 2012). As with boys, the picture is much more complicated than simply focusing on the life results caused by one specific variable, such as early maturation.
6-3dBrain Development during Adolescence
An adolescent’s brain also undergoes physical changes in response to new hormonal production. Such changes can result in behavioral and emotional consequences. Consider that
the hormonal changes that characterize puberty also influence brain function. The adrenal glands—located near the kidneys—release testosterone-like hormones that attach themselves to receptor sites throughout the brain and directly influence the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine, which play an important role in regulating mood and excitability (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Spear, 2003[b]). Two results of this hormone-induced chain of events are that adolescents’ emotions easily reach a flash point, and they are now more motivated to seek out intense experiences that will thrill, scare, and generally excite them (Paus, 2005; Steinberg, [2006]). Unfortunately, the brain regions that inhibit risky, impulsive behavior are still maturing, so there often is an insufficient internal brake on teenagers’ sensation-seeking desires and roller-coaster emotions (Steinberg, 2004). Where in the brain does this internal brake reside? The primary area is the prefrontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, which are responsible for complicated cognitive activities, such as planning, decision making, [and] goal setting… However, while the adolescent brain is undergoing hormonal assault, the prefrontal cortex is not quite ready to rein in or redirect the resulting emotions and thrill-seeking desires. Precisely at this time, the prefrontal cortex is experiencing a new phase of brain cell elimination and rewiring based on the use-it-or-lose-it principle. This pruning of unnecessary neuronal connections eventually results in much more efficient and more focused information-processing, and a prefrontal cortex that can serve as a reliable internal brake on runaway emotions and impulsive actions. In the meantime, developmental psychologists recommend that parents serve as the external brake while the adolescent brain is in this new phase of development. (Bjorklund & Blasi, 2012; Franzoi, 2008, p. 111)
During adolescence, boys experience greater changes in their brains than girls (Goldstein et al., 2001; Segovia et al., 2006). This “may account for the increased aggressiveness and irritability often associated with adolescence” (Martin & Fabes, 2009, p. 448).
6-3eAdolescent Health, and Substance Use and Abuse
During any time of life, including adolescence, lifestyle directly impacts health and the ability to function effectively. Discussed here is the use of mind-altering drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.
Use of Mind-Altering Substances
Berk (2012b) summarizes the current situation:
Teenage alcohol and drug use is pervasive in industrialized nations. According to the most recent, nationally representative survey of U.S. high school students, by tenth grade, 33 percent of U.S. young people have tried smoking, 59 percent drinking and 38 percent at least one illegal drug (usually marijuana). At the end of high school, 15 percent smoke cigarettes regularly, and 16 percent have engaged in heavy drinking during the past month. About 24 percent have tried at least one highly addictive and toxic substance, such as amphetamines, cocaine, phencyclidine (PCP), Ecstasy (MDMA), inhalants, heroin, sedatives (including barbiturates), or OxyContin (a narcotic painkiller) (Johnston et al., 2010).
These figures represent a substantial decline since the mid-1990s, probably resulting from greater parent, school, and media focus on the hazards of drug taking. But use of some substances—marijuana, inhalants, sedatives, and OxyContin—has risen slightly in recent years (Johnson et al, 2010). Other drugs, such as LSD, PCP, and Ecstasy, have made a comeback as adolescents’ knowledge of their risks faded. (p. 560)
Use of mind-altering substances by adolescents can have devastating effects.
Tomas Rodriguez/Fancy/Corbis
Use of Alcohol
We have established that many young people drink alcohol. Small amounts of alcohol may have a calming effect. However, immediate dangers from alcohol consumption include potential death when used with other drugs and accidents while driving. A scary finding of recent research is that extensive alcohol use as a teenager can cause impairment of mental functioning later on in life (Berk, 2012b; Newman & Newman, 2015)
Variables putting adolescents at risk for alcohol and other substance abuse can be clustered into four categories: environmental factors, peer influences, family influences, and personal characteristics (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 2012). Environmental factors including poverty, inadequate education, high unemployment, lack of positive role models, and absence of opportunity can place pressure on young people to escape through mind-altering substances. Peer pressure is a second major influence (Lewis, Neighbors, Lindgren, Buckingham, & Hoang, 2010). If “everybody’s doing it,” it may be more tempting. Parental factors related to drug use include lack of involvement with children and parents’ failure to monitor adequately their children’s behavior (Dishion, Kavanagh, Schneiger, Nelson, & Kaufman, 2002). If parents appear not to care or don’t provide support or direction, it’s easier for adolescents to succumb to temptation. Another parental factor is the use of alcohol and other substances by the parents themselves. Parents can provide role models for abuse. Personal characteristics of adolescents that increase risk of alcohol and other substance abuse include poor coping skills in response to the powerful emotional pain often experienced in adolescence, relationship and achievement problems at school, and a desire for excitement and self-gratification.
McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, and McWhirter (2013) describe a case scenario portraying the reflections of a counselor who worked with one at-risk adolescent.
One of us worked with a 13-year-old boy named Joe for two months after Joe’s mother requested that he receive counseling. She and her husband, Joe’s stepfather, were concerned about his poor school performance, his acting out, his group of “delinquent” friends, and his alternately hostile and completely withdrawn behavior at home.
Joe’s stepfather was a machine operator who provided severe yet inconsistent discipline. Joe disliked his stepfather, and he reported that the dislike was mutual. He described his mother as “nicer,” but complained-that she did not permit him to do what he wanted. His mother was primarily a homemaker, but occasionally she did temporary office work. She frequently placated her husband so that he would not get angry with Joe. She felt Joe needed to change, however, and believed that counseling might “fix” him. Joe’s parents refused to come in for counseling as a family because Joe was the problem.
Joe spent a great deal of time with his friends both during and after school. He reported smoking marijuana and cigarettes fairly regularly. Shortly after our first counseling session, he was arrested for possession of drug paraphernalia. His parents refused to let him see any of his friends after the arrest.
Joe’s school performance and effort were poor. Joe probably had a mild learning disability, but a recent psycho-educational evaluation had been inconclusive. Joe’s primary problem at school was his acting out. Unfortunately, when Joe got into trouble with a teacher, lie was inadvertently rewarded for his disruption. He could effectively avoid the schoolwork that he found so difficult and distasteful by sitting in the assistant principal’s office “listening to stupid stories.” Joe was doing so poorly at school and misbehaving with such frequency that his stepfather threatened to send him to a strict boarding school unless his behavior improved. Joe said that would be fine with him because he had heard that the work was easier there. His step-father’s threat to cut his hair short was the only consequence he seemed concerned about.
Joe primarily used marijuana, which did not change during the two months he was in counseling. We don’t know whether Joe experimented with more powerful substances because he showed a great deal of resistance to coming to counseling and seemed very disinterested in changing himself, although he did want his stepfather to move out. Joe was a frustrated and angry adolescent who resented his parents and received little direction or consistent structure from them. He was unsure of their expectations, hated school, felt isolated from his friends, and could see no solution to his problems. He directed his anxiety and poor self-esteem inward and acted out by skipping school, talking back to his teachers, or roaming the streets with his friends. (pp. 181–182)
Joe’s situation resembles that of many young people at risk for alcohol and other substance abuse. He received little support and no steady, coherent discipline from his parents. He was in constant conflict with his stepfather, whom he disliked intensely. He experienced serious difficulties in school and was rapidly falling behind. It was easy to turn to peers who probably experienced similar problems. Peer pressure then could reinforce problem behaviors and his substance abuse. Joe felt abused, isolated, and neglected by parents and school. He avoided responsibility for his behavior by escaping through drugs. His parents failed to see problems from a family system perspective and refused to participate in treatment. They eventually removed Joe from counseling. What do you think happened to him?
Ethical Questions 6.2
1. To what extent should efforts be made to make Joe a productive member of society? Whose responsibility is it to help Joe? His parents’? The community’s? His school’s? To what extent is a 13-year-old like Joe responsible for improving his own behavior?
Use of Tobacco
Subject to extreme peer pressure, adolescents find it easy to begin smoking, but very hard to quit. As with alcohol and other substance use, the positive news is that adolescent cigarette smoking, although still a serious problem, continues to be on the decline after peaking in 1996 and 1997 (Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2012). Santrock, 2016) reports:
Following peak use in 1996, smoking rates for U.S. eighth-graders have fallen by 50 percent.
In 2013, the percentages of adolescents who said they had smoked cigarettes in the last 30 days was 16 percent, a 3 percent decrease from 2011 (twelfth grade), 9 percent (tenth grade), and 4/5 percent (eighth grade). (p. 439)
Smoking is related to heart dis
